Applied Anthropology

To provide a basic overview of applied anthropology.

Understand the roles available to applied anthropologists.

Control the knowledge in the "classics" and current practices in the applied literature.

Understand the relationship between theory, methods, and practice.

Perceive the major strengths and weaknesses of applied anthropological approaches.

Explore and develop an increasing awareness of issues, ethical dilemmas, and the possible solutions that confront today's anthropologists as related to applied projects.

Learn to apply anthropological knowledge in a practical setting.

This course will employ a variety of teaching methods including lectures, guest speakers, class discussion, experiential exercises and student presentations.  One core element of the course is student participation in an applied group project. Assignments and student projects require demonstration of critical reading and think and effective writing and oral communication.

The Predisciplinary Stage: Pre-1860

The purpose of anthropology in this period was to provide information for some practical purpose. The gathering of data was primarily inspired by colonialism and territorial expansion. The conclusions based on the data were used to assist in the administration of the new areas.

The Applied Ethnology Stage: 1860-1930

This stage is exemplified by training and research specialists who worked in support of government and private foundations in administrative programs. Their efforts supported administrations in controlling the native populations. During this stage classical evolution theory gave way to structural-functionalism and historical anthropology. The primary functions were social reform, policy research, and the training of colonial administrators.

The Federal Service Stage: 1930-1945

This period start with the crisis of the Depression and ended with the crisis of WWII. Anthropologist worked chiefly in problem areas and political contexts.  The research moved from general ethnography to education, nutrition, culture contact, migration, land tenure, and other topics.  A lot of work was done for economic and resource development. Action research was the primary change in methodology associated with this stage. There were major advancements in the scientific study of management, the relations between working conditions and productivity. The Society for Applied Anthropologists (SfAA) began during this stage tin order to develop a more definite professional identity.

The Role Extension, Value-Explicit Stage: 1945-1970

This period is marked by the implementation of strategies for social change. The range of roles for applied anthropologist expanded as did those in academia. The value-explicit stance implied a willingness of anthropologist to define goals and values for their clients. Anthropologist cam to be change agents, directly involved in producing changed behavior. The SfAA developed their ethics statement during this period.

The approaches used during this period were:

1. Action Anthropology - the first action-involved, value-explicit approach used in anthropology. The key concepts are community self-determination and interactive planning. The means and the ends are interdependent.
2.  Research and Development Anthropology - had both scientific and development goals.  Focus was to increase the breadth of distribution of certain basic human values through participant intervention. The  value categories are power, respect, enlightenment, wealth, skill, well-being, affection, and rectitude.
3.  Community development - a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves for planning and action, define their needs and problems, and execute plans to solve them.
4.  Community Advocacy Anthropology - closer relationship between the community and the anthropologist. The anthropologist become a research technician in support of indigenous community leadership. It is more focused on research done in support of community-defined goals. The anthropologist is involved in the action but is not responsible for the change.  It is a collaborative relationship. The role of the anthropologist is to evaluate community programs, do needs assessments, and write proposals.
5.  Cultural Brokerage - the anthropologist serves as a link between two cultural systems. Conceptual elements are co-culture and culture mediation. The development of intervention techniques is characteristic of this stage.

The Policy Research Stage: 1970-Present

This period is characterized by an increased emphasis on policy research done outside of academic employment. This type of employment results in an increase in the new kinds of research. It appears to be a return to the federal service period. The reason behind this shift from academia is the dramatically shrinking academic job market. The creation of a wide array of policy research functions mandated by federal regulations and statutes is also a factor.

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1973, and the Community Development Act of 1974 are relevant policies to this change in research opportunities.

There are three categories in which these changes are visible:

1. Academic program content - make wider use of internships and practica.

2. Publication and dissemination of information - journals and publication of applied anthropology foundations,

3. Social Organization - large practitioner organizations, these organizations are a mechanism for effective networking in the profession.

Some examples of new developments in research are in social impact assessment and program evaluation. Anthropologists can predict for planners some of the social costs and benefits of various kinds of projects. Anthropologists are also engaged in social impact assessments in the context of international development.

Tendencies

1.  Applied and academic aspects of anthropology develop in parallel
2.  Applied anthropology stimulates interest in new topics and populations
3.  Applied anthropology expands research context, topics, and techniques
4.  AA is a product of external forces manifested in employment and funded research
 

The Sample - data is qualitative, data source was participant observation

Methodology

1. Gaining Entree - identify locations, learn about new settings, general characteristics of the various people present, don't force interaction, background knowledge of the lives of the people, locate gatekeepers and key informants,

2. Developing Relationships and Trust - both parties need to know each other, become aware and accepting of each other's roles, and engage in a reciprocal relationship. Need to set boundaries.

3. In-depth Interviews - in a private setting, consent procedures, open-ended questions,

4. Leaving the Field - physical removal from setting,

5. Provide the reader with perspective - Themes of the work

During fieldwork close attention was paid to how the landscape was used to talk about tribal history, how sites constituted monuments, and how artifacts are used to recall the past.

Format of the report:  Background information, a piece from each native tradition, summative evaluation

Collaborative ethnographic research illustrates that the archaeological landscape is part of an ongoing cultural dynamic. Narratives inject a sense of humanity into the archeology project. The sites are valued as historical monuments. Language reconnects the people to the places, their ancestors, and the spirits.

The expedient approach, using theories appropriate to the questions we ask.

Archaeology must become more relevant to global issues of today and tomorrow.

Theory and data collection need to play back and forth between themselves. They must each inform the other of how to proceed with research.

At the lowest levels, "little studies" focus on a particular aspect of a larger topic. The nest step up are "big studies" which synthesize little studies and give overall impressions. Large-scale synthesis is not dependent on contemporary theory but the writing reflects a theoretical stance.

General theories explain grand patterns of culture change. They are the stuff of big studies. Leslie White's theories are an examples of this type of approach. General theories replace theories that came before them. They also exaggerate the differences between their theories and others'.

Expedient theories pick and choose elements of a general theory. Expedient theorists are eclectic and select elements of a theory that illuminate the data. Existing theory is used to construct new theory. It is more flexible that a general theory. Expedient theories do not produce major paradigm shifts but rather produce incremental advances in understanding the past.

Realism encourages an expedient approach by accounting for the evolution of one social form to another. The goal of realism is not prediction, but explanation. A realist does not begin with general principles, but with the social forms of an actual society.

Postprocessual archaeology should be flexible in the theory it uses. Postprocessual archaeologists are not proposing a replacement of past theory, but are advocating the inclusion of other concepts. They reflect on how humans actually behave.

Agent-based modeling is a simulation that acts as a prosthesis for the imagination. It is a use of a computer database to interpret and understand human behavior.

The expedient approach uses theories that are more opportunistic than inclusive, more complimentary than opposing.  The time, place, and specific unknowns should be the overriding issues that determine the theory that frames the research. The goal of uniting theory and practice is to provide a richer, more detailed, and plausible account of the past.

The New Ecologies are reflections of ideas, decisions, and practices based on mental activities that remain encoded on landscape.

Symbolic ecology pursues the archaeology of the human mind and its relationship to the landscape on which the play is staged.

Historic ecology is a dynamic concept that an environment is the result of the interplay between culture and the environment.

Political ecology explores the consequences of power relationships on a large scale in order to understand how humans use the environment.

Archaeology needs to find uses for its product to make it relevant. Teaching and outreach. Revival. Draw on and add to educational theories. Multiculturalism. Integral part of public policy. Studies need to be more intensive than extensive.

1. describe cultural models
2. identify social context of action
3. establish conditions that allow for change (protective forces) or prevent change (barriers)
4. provide theoretical framework of decision-making and sustainable actions
5. identify the symbolic and communication conditions of cultural systems

Grand Ethnographic Theory

1. Evolutionary Theories - "change through time", mid-range theories combined with epidemiology and policy development.

2. Cognitive Theories - relationships between human conditions, informed by theories of cultural models and theories on the patterns of cognitive change. Methods associated with these research designs include systematically administered, semistructured, and open-ended interviews analyzed through hierarchal coding and pattern recognition of themes and conceptual linkages.

Consensus Theory modeling - a method that allows an ethnographer to explore a consensual description of a cultural domain while simultaneously assessing individual informants' expertise in that domain. Consists of a formalized set of questions to ask, but without knowing the correct, cultural answers.

3. Organizational Theories - derives from theories of kinship and social network analysis. Three primary methods of research are ethnographic network mapping, ego-centered network surveys, and full relational network analysis.

ethnographic network mapping - thoroughly describes the participants, the behaviors, the kinship and friendship ties, and the consequences of small bounded groups in a community through qualitative interviewing.

ego-centered network surveys - describe an index individual (ego) and all of the individuals that he or she recognized as being connected in terms of specified social relationships.

network analysis - requires the researcher to identify naturally occurring networks and to explore the relationships among all of the member of that network through observation and interviews.

4. Symbolic Theories - communications. 

a) Grammatical categories are the primary mechanism influencing culturally specific thought patterns.
b) The creation of meaning is only emergent and negotiated in interaction.
c) Meaning is constructed through a metalanguage structure (mentalese).
d) "voices" present in speakers' roles are critical to understanding communication in context
e) speech creates social context

5. Cultural-ecological Theories - relationships between humans and their environments. The mid-range theories that are currently being tested are: barriers to change research (environmental factors research), cultural-congruency models (conflicts in belief and process), human-biological interactions research, and comparative models research.

Resource Claims - help establish reservation boundaries and to secure access to culturally significant places, esblish the legal validity of many claims, provides methods and information to ensure that American Indians have access to and protection of places of importance, settle territorial disputes, return of human remains and important artifacts to cultural groups (repatriation), and CRM necessitated by land developments.

Cultural Identity and Representation - mitigate the biases that arise in historical records, preserve cultural material history, and contribute to community solidarity and cultural vitality.

Technological Applications - revival of ancient technologies to solve modern problems

Public Education - teach the public about major events, transitions, and processes in the long-term human history, museums, in situ exhibits, curriculum development, therapy and occupational training for special needs populations.

Cultural Resource Managements (CRM) - make decisions about developments, redevelopment, outdoor recreation, and other land-management issues, "conservation model,"

Cultural Tourism - overlap between public education activities and  cultural tourism, concerned primarily with developing and interpreting cultural resources to attract or serve an audience engaged in leisure travel, to ensure that cultural resources are promoted and interpreted in ways that are theoretically sound and culturally appropriate.

Environmental and Ecosystem Applications - date on climate, human-induced environmental change, catastrophic natural events, and the composition of local floral and faunal assemblages.  Most of the information is used in environmental planning, analysis, and ecosystem management.

Seven Principles of Archaeological Practice

Methods - qualitative methods are superior to quantitative

Concept of Culture - provides a conceptual framework for understanding how collective beliefs influence behavior

Local Context - each community is unique

Social Groups and Networks - projects build on existing social networks and organizations

Macro and Micro Perspectives - local or individual level information and macrolevel "contextual" information like the census, or regional economic data

Culture Broker Roles - mediator is situations that demand translation or mediation between people with divergent languages and viewpoints

Qualitative Program Evaluator - Focused ethnographic methods complement quantitative outcome measures.

Ethics Considerations

time constraints, information dissemination, and value conflicts

What is the nature of the need or problem?
Whose need is it?
What is the extent of the problem? Where is it located? Who is involved?

Policy Formulation

What can be done? The answer can involve an extensive analysis of the range of alternatives that will address the problem.
What are the expected effects or consequences of those alternatives? The answer can involve analyses of the costs and benefits to different groups, the analysis of externalities and distributional effects, the minimization of harmful effects, questions of equity and efficiency, capital flow and productivity.
Is the solution feasible? Can it actually be carried out, or are there logistical, legal, religious, political, or other barriers?

Planning and Implementing Interventions

What specific programs/actions should be designed to achieve the objectives?
Which population groups should be targeted?
What should be our priorities?
What combination of activities will meet our objectives? Training programs? Services? Income transfer?

Assessing What Happened

Was the process effective? efficient?
What effects did the intervention have?
Were there unintended consequences?
Did the program meet its objectives? At what level?
Did the effort adhere to its legal mandate?

Policy research is the process by which objective, representative information is collected, analyzed, and communicated to help decision makers set guidelines for the goals and activities of various kinds of groups such as agencies, firms, and governments.

Features that increase potential of anthropologists as policy researchers:
1. The effects of participatory field work
2. A holistic perspective
3. Regional expertise
4. Grounded research techniques
5. Fieldwork

Features that limit the effectiveness of anthropologists:
1. lack of time effectiveness
2. lack of experience in cross-disciplinary communication
3. lack of sophistication in use of quantitative analysis techniques
4. the "underdog" bias
5. the small scale of the discipline
6. lack of tradition of multi-disciplinary collaboration

Knowledge Utilization Strategies

1. advocacy for research findings -
2. communication factors - language and style of the user, varied media and formats, action terms, feedback
3. collaboration with potential users - feedback and relevance
4. community and political factors - areas of conflict and resolution of problems, impact of findings
5. research process factors - flexibility, combination of qualitative and quantitative, quality, applicability
6. agency (client) factors -  how are decisions made and who makes them, values, perspective
7. ethical issues - costs to whom and what? research is never "value free"

North Americans tend to think of the cultural flow of ideas and goods as going from West to East, however the globalization of the tuna market is an example of cultural exchange in reverse. Sushi became a sign of class and educational standings in North America, an example of a sophisticated, cosmopolitan consumer class.

Globalization of this industry has brought fishers into contact and conflict with customers, governments, regulators, and environmentalists around the world. Tokyo's fish market, Tsukiji, is the center of the global trade in tuna. The auction system used to distribute the fish integrates fishers, firms, and restaurants worldwide in a complex network of local and translocal economics.

The brand equity of sushi as Japanese cultural property has added to the cachet of both the country and the cuisine. Sushi is firmly embedded in the minds of consumers as part of Japanese cultural identity. There is a complex interplay between industry and culture.

The objective of the study was to identify core dimensions of community that have external validity across communities with measures that have internal validity within diverse communities, and have predictive value for community-level health outcomes. The related objective was to demonstrate the value added to research when community members actively participate in the design, implementation, and interpretation of the research.

Data collection methods were qualitative, face to face, in-depth interviews with open-ended questions. Data analysis was through a structured codebook and the cluster analysis used in AnSWR and ANTHROPAC software. The results were disseminated both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Key Terms:

KAP survey - data collection technique aimed at gathering the knowledge, attitudes and practices of a particular group

Applied Anthropology is the use of ideas, techniques, and data to contribute to solutions to real-world problems. Applied anthropologists collaborate to identify and solve problems.

The National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA) defines an applied anthropologist as a practicing anthropologist employed  by social service organizations, non-profit organizations, government agencies, business and industry, or public education organizations.

Applied anthropologists work in non-academic settings.  They use anthropological ideas and technologies to help individuals, families, communities, corporations or nations. The work in diverse areas including: medicine, social services, manufacturing, marketing, law enforcement, forensics, education, and cultural resource management. 

Applied Anthropology attempts to contribute to solutions to social problems.  The solution usually involves social change and community participation.  Applied Anthropology contributes to policies to ameliorate conditions of poverty, illness, over-population, and inequality.

Applied Anthropology: The Fifth Field

The four subfields of anthropology are 1) cultural anthropology, 2) archaeology, 3) physical anthropology, and 4) linguistics.  Each of these contribute their own significant theoretical contributions and do not replicate the existing knowledge base of the others.  Applied Anthropology fits this definition and therefore is considered to be the fifth subfield of anthropology. 

The Three Basic Roles of Applied Anthropologists

1. Applied Research (common to all three) -- gaining the knowledge or information needed to address specific goals or needs.

• identification of problem
• formulation of policy
• development and implementation of change strategies
• evaluation

2. Policy Development

• establishment
• analysis
• revision

3. Intervention

• hands-on
• direct action

Academic vs. Applied Anthropologists

Careers

Career possibilities include but are not limited to: development, advocacy, social work, law and law enforcement, business, social marketing, medicine, international health, education, technology development, agricultural development, and natural and cultural resource management.

Considerations

In the pursuit of a career in applied anthropology one needs to consider:

• intense and sustainable interest
• financial requirements
• personal satisfaction
• lifestyle

Employers

• governments (USAID)
• international aid agencies (UN, WHO, UNDP)
• non-governmental organizations (CEDPA)
• private foundations (Ford, Rockefeller)
• private business (GM, Coca-Cola, Citigroup, Xerox)
• private charitable organizations (Habitat for Humanity)
• consulting firms (profit or non-profit)

Educational Requirements

To be successful in the applied anthropology filed one should have three degrees as follows:

• B.A. - Cultural Anthropology
• M.A. - Applied Anthropology
• 3rd degree - an M.A. in business, law or education or a Ph.D. in a specialty area such as health, economics, or international relations

Lifestyle

Much of the work of applied anthropologists is international and therefore requires mobility. Salaries are in the middle management range.  The work is collaborative, including the beneficiaries and other professionals.

Goal

The goal of an applied anthropologist is to explore and define the knowledge, beliefs, values, needs, and behaviors in a particular group and propose solutions to problems based on that information.

Key Terms:

• theory
• philosophy
• method

Basic Strategy of Research

1. identification of a specific problem
        an organization decides on a social change project
        assessment of problem by an anthropologist
2. conduct research - documentary or ethnographic
3. policy formulation or direct action
        action - plan, timetable, budget, personnel
4. intervention
5. evalution
        process or formative - in progress
        summative or outcome - were the goals met?

Principles of Research

Community Participation -  the active involvement of the intended beneficiary, rests on ethnographic research to determine what the local people think and want, and ensures the intended results empowers the participants and bonds members.

Sustainability - the results or effects of projects should be able to be carried forward by the beneficiaries after outside assistance has ended.

• socially - continued involved of the local people
• technologically - material benefit should be locally maintainable
• environmentally - changes must rely on renewable natural resources

Methods

The methods used by applied anthropologists are specialized due to narrowly defined goals, time constraints, and the development of working partnerships.

Surveys